Longevity
Glossary

Plants that modulate the stress response and allostatic load

Adaptogens are a group of medicinal plants that increase the body's resistance to physical, chemical, and biological stress by modulating the hypothal…

The biological cost of chronic stress accumulated over a lifetime

Allostatic load is the biological wear and tear accumulated in the body from repeated or chronic activation of the stress response systems — HPA axis …

The cellular energy sensor that activates longevity pathways when ATP runs low

AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) is an enzyme that senses the energy status of the cell. It is activated when the AMP/ATP ratio rises — that is, wh…

The real marker of cardiovascular risk — better than LDL-cholesterol alone

Apolipoprotein B-100 (ApoB) is the main structural protein of all atherogenic lipoproteins: LDL, VLDL, IDL, and Lp(a). Each particle contains exactly …

Programmed cellular suicide that protects the body from cancer

Apoptosis is the main form of programmed cell death in multicellular organisms. Unlike necrosis (chaotic death with inflammation), apoptosis is an ord…

The deep-red carotenoid with the highest known antioxidant capacity

Astaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid of intense red colour produced by the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis, responsible for the colour of wild sa…

The cellular recycling system that activates longevity pathways

Autophagy (from the Greek for 'self-eating') is the process by which cells degrade and recycle their own damaged or defective components — misfolded p…

The brain's 'Miracle-Gro' protein that maintains neuronal plasticity

BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor) is a protein of the neurotrophin family that regulates the survival, growth, and plasticity of neurons. It is…

The plant alkaloid acting as nature's metformin

Berberine is a yellow isoquinoline alkaloid extracted from roots and bark of plants such as Coptis chinensis, Berberis vulgaris, and Hydrastis canaden…

Systematic optimisation of the body using science and technology

Biohacking is the practice of applying scientific principles, technology, and lifestyle changes to optimise physical performance, mental performance, …

The true age of your cells, independent of your date of birth

Biological age measures the functional state of the body at a molecular and cellular level, as opposed to chronological age (years lived). Two people …

The five regions in the world with the highest concentration of centenarians

Blue Zones are five geographical areas identified by Dan Buettner (National Geographic) and Gianni Pes (University of Sassari) with the world's highes…

The regenerative peptide derived from gastric juice with proven healing properties

BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound 157) is a pentadecapeptide of 15 amino acids derived from a protective protein found in human gastric juice. It work…

The most reproducible intervention to extend lifespan in all model organisms

Caloric restriction (CR) is the chronic reduction of 20-40% of habitual caloric intake without malnutrition — maintaining adequate protein, vitamin, a…

The biological revolution showing that ageing can be reversed

Cellular reprogramming is the conversion of adult somatic cells to a pluripotent state (similar to embryonic) by forced expression of four transcripti…

The 'zombie' cells that neither die nor divide — and poison their surroundings

Cellular senescence is a state in which a cell permanently stops dividing but does not die. These 'zombie' or senescent cells accumulate irreparable D…

See your glucose minute-by-minute for 14 days, not just at a finger-prick

A CGM (Continuous Glucose Monitor) is a small subcutaneous sensor (FreeStyle Libre, Dexcom G7, Linx) that measures interstitial glucose every 1-5 minu…

The genetic predisposition that determines whether you are a lark, owl, or in-between

Chronotype is the individual circadian pattern that determines the preferred time for sleeping, waking, productivity, and eating. It is genetically de…

The 24-hour molecular clock that synchronises virtually all physiology

The circadian rhythm is the biological cycle of approximately 24 hours that regulates virtually all physiological processes: sleep-wake cycle, hormone…

The GHRH analogue that extends growth-hormone release for days

CJC-1295 is a synthetic 30-amino-acid analogue of growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) that stimulates endogenous pulsatile secretion of growth hor…

The essential cofactor of the mitochondrial respiratory chain that declines with age

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10, ubiquinone) is a fat-soluble molecule present in all cell membranes, especially the inner mitochondrial membrane, where it acts a…

The first senolytic protocol tested in humans to eliminate zombie cells

The Dasatinib + Quercetin (D+Q) protocol is the most-studied senolytic combination in humans, developed by James Kirkland and Tamara Tchkonia at Mayo …

The gold standard for measuring visceral fat, muscle mass, and bone density

DEXA Scan (Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry) is the non-invasive imaging test that precisely measures body composition in three compartments: total an…

The algorithm that reads your DNA and calculates how old your cells really are

An epigenetic clock is a bioinformatics algorithm that estimates biological age from DNA methylation patterns at specific genomic positions (CpG sites…

How the environment modifies gene expression without changing the DNA

Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence. The main mechanisms are DNA methylation (a…

The pineal tetrapeptide that activates telomerase and reprograms the epigenetic clock

Epithalon (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) is a synthetic tetrapeptide developed by Dr. Vladimir Khavinson (St. Petersburg Institute of Gerontology) from Epithalamin…

Intercellular messengers that replicate the regenerative power of stem cells

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles of 30–150 nanometres secreted by virtually all cells in the body. They transport mRNA, microRNA, proteins, and lip…

Transfer of a complete microbiome from a healthy donor to reset the intestinal ecosystem

Faecal microbiota transplant (FMT) is the administration of a carefully selected healthy donor's intestinal microbiota preparation into the patient's …

The iron reserve — and an underrated inflammatory marker

Ferritin is the intracellular protein that stores iron in a non-toxic, bioavailable form. Its serum level reflects total body iron stores: low in iron…

The natural senolytic flavonoid with the best safety-efficacy ratio

Fisetin is a polyphenolic flavonoid present mainly in strawberries (160 μg/g), followed by apples, persimmons, grapes, and onions. It is one of the mo…

The longevity gene most reproducibly associated with centenarians

FOXO3 (Forkhead Box O3) is a transcription factor that activates expression of genes involved in oxidative stress resistance, DNA repair, programmed a…

Molecules with unpaired electrons — necessary for life in controlled doses

Free radicals are molecules or atoms with an unpaired electron in their outer orbital, making them highly reactive. In biology, the most relevant are …

The regenerative peptide that activates more than 4,000 genes associated with youth

GHK-Cu (Glycine-Histidine-Lysine with copper) is an endogenous tripeptide present in human plasma that decreases by 60% between ages 20 and 60. Its di…

The body's master antioxidant

Glutathione is a tripeptide (glutamate-cysteine-glycine) considered the primary intracellular antioxidant of the human body. It acts as a cofactor for…

The biochemical 'caramelisation' of proteins that stiffens tissues with age

Glycation is the non-enzymatic reaction between reducing sugars (glucose, fructose) and proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids, forming Advanced Glycation…

The most-underrated amino acid — essential for collagen, glutathione, and deep sleep

Glycine is the smallest and simplest amino acid, considered 'conditionally essential' in humans: the body synthesises it, but needs exceed endogenous …

The 39 trillion microorganisms that regulate immunity, metabolism, and brain function

The gut microbiome is the set of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, archaea) inhabiting the human digestive tract. It is composed of approximat…

The bidirectional highway between your microbiome and your nervous system

The gut-brain axis is the bidirectional communication network between the central nervous system, the enteric nervous system (the 'second brain' with …

The 12 molecular mechanisms that define biological ageing

The Hallmarks of Aging are the fundamental cellular and molecular processes that, together, define biological ageing. The original formulation by Lópe…

The average glucose of the last 90 days — and a longevity marker

HbA1c is the fraction of haemoglobin that has reacted non-enzymatically with glucose, reflecting the average glycaemia of the last 60-90 days (erythro…

The difference between living longer and living better — and why the former matters more

Lifespan is the total duration of life (years lived). Healthspan is the period of life during which optimal functional health is maintained — free fro…

The most important inflammatory marker for predicting cardiovascular risk

High-sensitivity CRP (hsCRP, high-sensitivity C-Reactive Protein) is an acute-phase protein synthesised by the liver in response to systemic inflammat…

The proteins that pack DNA and decide which genes are active

Histones are basic proteins (positively charged) around which DNA wraps to be packaged in the nucleus: 147 base pairs of DNA wrap around an octamer of…

The early marker of metabolic syndrome, years before diabetes appears

HOMA-IR (Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance) is an index calculated mathematically from fasting glucose and insulin: HOMA-IR = (Glucos…

The amino acid whose elevated levels accelerate vascular and brain ageing

Homocysteine is a sulfur-containing amino acid intermediate of methionine metabolism. Its plasma accumulation (hyperhomocysteinemia) is toxic to vascu…

Why small doses of stress make the body stronger

Hormesis is the biological phenomenon in which low-intensity exposures to a stressor produce beneficial effects, while high doses of the same agent ar…

The most powerful non-invasive biomarker of autonomic nervous system status

HRV (Heart Rate Variability) is the temporal variation between consecutive heartbeats (R-R intervals on ECG). It directly reflects the balance of the …

The cellular growth hormone — paradox between vitality and accelerated ageing

IGF-1 is a peptide hormone produced mainly by the liver in response to growth hormone (GH). It is the effector mediator of most GH effects: it promote…

The ageing of the immune system that reduces defences and increases inflammation

Immunosenescence is the progressive deterioration of the immune system with age, characterised by: thymic involution (the thymus, where T lymphocytes …

The chronic low-grade inflammation that accelerates ageing

Inflammaging (a contraction of 'inflammation' and 'ageing') describes the state of chronic, low-grade systemic inflammation that progressively sets in…

The eating window that activates autophagy, sirtuins, and cellular repair

Intermittent fasting (IF) is an eating pattern that alternates periods of fasting with feeding windows. The most-studied protocols are 16:8 (16 h fast…

The microbiome imbalance that triggers systemic inflammation

Intestinal dysbiosis is the qualitative and quantitative alteration of the gut microbiome: loss of bacterial diversity, overgrowth of pro-inflammatory…

Toxin and bacterial leakage through the gut barrier compromises immunity

Increased intestinal permeability — colloquially known as 'leaky gut' — is the loss of integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier, which normally …

The selective GH secretagogue without cortisol or prolactin elevation

Ipamorelin is a pentapeptide GH secretagogue that acts selectively on the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a), inducing pulsatile endogenous release of GH from…

The most underrated genetic cardiovascular risk factor — affects 20% of the population

Lipoprotein(a) — Lp(a), pronounced 'lipoprotein little a' — is an inherited LDL variant in which apolipoprotein B-100 is covalently bound to apolipopr…

The cofactor of 600+ enzymes — deficient in 60% of the population

Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in the body and an essential cofactor of more than 600 enzymes, including ATP synthase (cellular energy …

The dietary pattern with the most scientific evidence for extending healthspan

The Mediterranean diet is the traditional dietary pattern of countries around the Mediterranean basin (Spain, Italy, Greece, southern France) characte…

The master sleep hormone and a powerful mitochondrial antioxidant

Melatonin is a hormone derived from the amino acid tryptophan, synthesised mainly by the pineal gland in response to darkness. Its night-time peak (be…

The most widely used regenerative cells in longevity and regenerative medicine

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent adult stem cells found in bone marrow, adipose tissue, umbilical cord, and other tissues. Their primary …

The antidiabetic drug most repositioned in longevity — TAME is its great pending trial

Metformin is a biguanide derived from the plant Galega officinalis, used since 1957 for treatment of type 2 diabetes. It is the most prescribed oral a…

Practices that modulate physiology through conscious nervous system regulation

Mind-body medicine is the set of practices that use conscious regulation of the autonomic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) …

The cellular power plants whose dysfunction accelerates ageing

Mitochondria are organelles present in nearly all human cells (except erythrocytes) responsible for producing the majority of cellular ATP through oxi…

The molecular switch that decides between growth and longevity

mTOR (mechanistic Target of Rapamycin) is a protein kinase that acts as a central sensor of nutrients, energy, and growth factors. When mTOR is active…

The coenzyme of life that declines with age and is key to longevity

NAD+ is a coenzyme present in all living cells, fundamental to over 500 biochemical reactions. Its primary functions are: electron transport in the mi…

The transcriptional master switch of chronic inflammation and inflammaging

NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) is a transcription factor controlling expression of hundreds of genes related to inflammation, immune response, cellula…

The immediate NAD+ precursor — the star oral longevity supplement

NMN (β-Nicotinamide Mononucleotide) is a nucleotide and immediate precursor of NAD+: the enzyme NMNAT directly converts it to NAD+ in the cellular cyt…

The NAD+ precursor with the most published human clinical evidence

NR (Nicotinamide Riboside, Niagen) is a form of vitamin B3 that is a NAD+ precursor, discovered by Charles Brenner (Iowa) in 2004 as substrate for the…

The endogenous antioxidant master switch that activates >200 protective genes

Nrf2 (Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2) is a transcription factor that regulates the endogenous cellular antioxidant response. When activat…

The metabolic state in which the brain uses ketones instead of glucose

Nutritional ketosis is a metabolic state in which the liver produces ketone bodies (β-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, acetone) from fatty acids, typica…

The essential fatty acids with most cardiovascular, neurological, and anti-inflammatory evidence

The omega-3 fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic) and DHA (docosahexaenoic) are long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids essential for human health because…

The imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants that damages cellular DNA

Oxidative stress is the imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the endogenous antioxidant capacity (enzymatic and non-e…

The transcription factor that decides whether to repair, senesce, or eliminate damaged cells

The p53 gene (TP53) encodes a 393-amino-acid protein called 'the guardian of the genome' by David Lane (1992). Activated upon DNA damage, oxidative st…

The post-multivitamin paradigm: each supplement responds to a measured deficit

Personalised supplementation is the approach of individualised prescription of nutrients, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, peptides, and other bioacti…

The therapeutic use of light to stimulate the mitochondria

Photobiomodulation (PBM) is the use of light at specific wavelengths (630–850 nm, red and near-infrared) to stimulate biological processes in tissues.…

The proteins that control inflammation — and become dysregulated with ageing

Cytokines are signalling proteins that regulate the immune and inflammatory response. The most relevant for ageing are IL-6 (interleukin 6) and TNF-α …

The balance of protein synthesis, folding, and degradation — basis of cellular longevity

Proteostasis (protein homeostasis) is the set of cellular mechanisms that maintain correct folding, function, and timely degradation of all proteins. …

Regeneration using the growth factors from your own blood

PRP (Platelet-Rich Plasma) is an autologous therapy that concentrates platelets and their growth factors (PDGF, TGF-β, VEGF, EGF, FGF) to 5–10 times n…

The most versatile flavonoid — senolytic, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and antihistamine

Quercetin is a ubiquitous polyphenolic flavonol in the plant kingdom, abundant in red onions, capers, apples with skin, grapes, green tea, red fruits,…

The only drug to have extended lifespan in mice — even when started in old age

Rapamycin (sirolimus) is a macrolide produced by the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus discovered on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, from which it takes i…

The red-wine polyphenol that activates sirtuins — a story with lights and shadows

Resveratrol (trans-3,5,4'-trihydroxystilbene) is a stilbenoid polyphenol present in the skin of red grapes, red wine, blueberries, peanuts, and the Ja…

The biomarker of chronic stress — its PATTERN matters more than the spot value

Cortisol is the main hormone of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, released in circadian pulses: peak upon awakening (CAR, Cortisol Awaken…

The progressive loss of muscle mass associated with ageing — and preventable

Sarcopenia is the progressive and generalised loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength associated with ageing. Defined by the European consensus EWGS…

The inflammatory cocktail that zombie cells dump into surrounding tissue

SASP (Senescence-Associated Secretory Phenotype) is the set of factors actively secreted by senescent cells: pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, I…

Drugs that selectively eliminate senescent cells — longevity's frontier

Senolytics are drugs or natural compounds that induce selective apoptosis in senescent ('zombie') cells, exploiting their dependence on specific anti-…

The longevity enzymes that depend on NAD+ to function

Sirtuins are a family of 7 deacylase proteins (SIRT1–7) that regulate cellular processes fundamental to longevity: DNA repair, genome stability, energ…

The truly atherogenic LDL fraction — penetrates the endothelium better and oxidises more

Small dense LDL (sdLDL) are LDL-cholesterol particles of subtype III/IV — smaller (<25.5 nm) and denser than large buoyant LDL (lbLDL, subtypes I/II).…

The natural polyamine that induces autophagy and extends lifespan in animal models

Spermidine is a natural polyamine present in all living cells and abundant in foods such as wheat germ, fermented soy (natto), aged cheese, mushrooms,…

The most potent natural Nrf2 activator — extracted from broccoli sprouts

Sulforaphane is an isothiocyanate derived from glucoraphanin, present at high concentrations in broccoli, kale, cauliflower, cabbage, and especially t…

The systemic regenerative peptide for deep tissues — ideal complement to BPC-157

TB-500 (Thymosin Beta-4 fraction 17-23) is a synthetic peptide derived from thymosin beta-4, a 44-amino-acid protein present in high concentration in …

The 'caps' on chromosomes that shorten with each cell division

Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences (TTAGGG in humans) that protect the ends of chromosomes, like the plastic tips on shoelaces. With each cell div…

The GHRH analogue specifically effective in reducing visceral fat

Tesamorelin is a synthetic 44-amino-acid analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) modified with a trans-3-hexenoic acid residue that increa…

Precision molecular signals that repair, optimise, and rejuvenate

Therapeutic peptides are short chains of 2–50 amino acids that act as specific molecular signals in the body, activating receptors with high selectivi…

The tissue specialised in burning calories to produce heat — key in metabolic ageing

Thermogenesis is heat production by the body. Adaptive thermogenesis — increased energy expenditure in response to cold, feeding, or stress — is media…

The postbiotic that activates mitophagy — the 'recycling' of damaged mitochondria

Urolithin A is a metabolite produced by gut microbiota from ellagitannins present in pomegranates, red fruits (raspberries, strawberries, blackberries…

Activation of the body's longest parasympathetic nerve — systemic anti-inflammatory

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is the deliberate activation of the tenth cranial nerve — the main component of the parasympathetic nervous system that …

The deep abdominal fat — source of chronic inflammation and insulin resistance

Visceral fat (VAT, Visceral Adipose Tissue) is the adipose tissue located within the abdominal cavity, surrounding organs such as the liver, intestine…

The 'sunshine hormone' — receptor present in virtually every cell of the body

Vitamin D is technically a fat-soluble steroid pre-hormone. Its active form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol), binds to nuclear receptors (VDR) pr…

The cardiorespiratory fitness metric that most powerfully predicts mortality

VO2 Max (maximum oxygen consumption) is the maximum amount of oxygen the body can capture, transport, and use during aerobic exercise, expressed in mi…

The optimal aerobic intensity for building mitochondrial capacity

Zone 2 exercise is the baseline aerobic intensity — usually 60-70% of maximum heart rate, or the threshold at which you can still hold a conversation …